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AP Biology

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Explore cell biology, genetics, evolution, ecology, and biological systems with AP Biology. This course supports AP exam preparation through clear lessons, scientific reasoning practice, and in-depth study of key life science concepts essential for future medical and STEM pathways.

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Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Cell cycle Reference: Cell cycle, Interphase, G1 phase, S-phase, G2 phase M-phase or period of division, Mitosis, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis                                             Learning objectives To learn about the phases of interphase To understand the different phases of mitosis Life of all multicellular organisms starts from single cell […]

Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Feedback Reference: Feedback mechanism, Negative feedback mechanism with examples, Positive Feedback mechanism with example Other examples of positive feedback   Learning objectives To understand the feedback mechanism of hormones To learn about positive and negative feedback with suitable examples Feedback mechanism: The hormone feedback mechanism is defined as […]

Unit: Cell communication and Cell Cycle Chapter: Changes in signal transduction pathway Reference: Changes in signal transduction pathway, Causes of changes in signal transduction pathways, Environmental conditions Mutation, Inhibitors, and activators-Changes in Insulin Signaling Pathways Cancer-causing types of changes in signal transduction pathways                                                                        Learning Objectives To understand the cause of changes in signal transduction […]

Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Signal transduction Reference: Components of signal transduction, Steps in the signal transduction pathway, Importance of signal transduction   Learning objectives To understand the steps involved in signal transduction pathway To learn about the importance of signal transduction Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical […]

Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Cell communication Reference: Types of cell communication, The cell signalling pathway, Cell-cell contact   Learning objectives To understand about the process of cell communication and its pathway To learn about the types of chemicals signalling  Cell communication is also called as cell signalling. Cell to cell signalling refers […]

Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Cellular respiration Reference: cellular respiration, types of respiration, aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative aerobes, glycolysis, fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, aerobic respiration, tricarboxylic acid cycle, electron transport system (ets) and oxidative phosphorylation   Learning objectives To understand about respiration and its types To learn […]

Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Photosynthesis Reference: Photosynthesis, Chloroplasts, Two predominant types of chlorophylls, Nature of light-Pigment systems, Light reaction, The Electron Transport System, Dark reaction   Learning objectives To understand about light and dark reaction To learn about the structure of chloroplast, light harvesting complex Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the only process on earth by which […]

Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Cellular energy Reference: Cellular energy, Anabolic pathways, Catabolic pathways, Systems and Surroundings, Isolated System, Closed System, Open System, The First Law of Thermodynamics, Entropy and second law of thermodynamics, ATP Hydrolysis of ATP, ATP-Coupled Reaction Process, Exergonic reaction, Endergonic reaction                                              Learning objectives To understand about system and surroundings To […]

Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Environmental impacts on enzyme function Reference: Temperature, Hydrogen -ion concentration, Concentration of the enzymes, Concentration of the substrate, Concentration of the end products, Hydration   Learning objectives To understand the effect of environment on enzymes The presence of enzymes not only accelerates or retards the chemical reactions but due to their […]

Module: Cellular energetics Chapter: enzyme catalysis Reference : Mechanism of enzyme action, Mode of action of enzyme ,lock & key theory or template theory enzyme – substrate complex theory, induced fit theory, Competitive inhibition, Non -competitive inhibition                                     Learning objectives To understand the mechanism of enzyme action To learn about competitive and non-competitive inhibition […]

50 results found

Structure Of Water And Hydrogen Bonding

AP Biology
Reference: AP Course Bio Unit 1, Chemistry of Life, Structure of water, Hydrogen bonding, Atomic structure, Vander-Waals interaction, Polarity of water,  Water properties, Cohesion and adhesion of water molecules.   Learning objectives To study previous knowledge of chemistry To understand the structure of water and bonding in it CHEMISTRY OF LIFE ATOM-The smallest unit of […]

Meiosis And Genetic Diversity

AP Biology
Unit: Heredity Chapter: Meiosis, Meiosis, and genetic diversity Reference: Meiosis, Meiosis-I, Meiosis II (Homotypic division) Significance of meiosis Learning objectives To learn different stages in meiosis To understand how meiosis helps in genetic diversity Meiosis -it is a special type of indirect cell division which occurs only in the diploid cells to form the haploid […]

Mendelian Genetics

AP Biology
Unit (5): Heredity Chapter: Mendelian genetics  Reference: Mendel’s law of inheritance, monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross   Learning objectives To learn about Mendel’s law of inheritance         MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms. Mendelism: the study of Mendel’s […]

Non-mendelian Genetics

AP Biology
Unit (5): Heredity Chapter: Non-mendelian genetics Reference: Non-Mendelian genetics, Types of non-mendelian inheritance, Codominance, Incomplete dominance, Multiple alleles, A polygenic trait, Polygenic inheritance, Lethal or lethal genes, Extracellular inheritance Learning objectives To understand about the types of non-mendelian inheritance To learn about polygenic inheritance, lethal genes, and extracellular inheritance Non-Mendelian genetics Non-mendelian genetics involves the […]

Environmental Effects On Phenotype

AP Biology
Unit (5): Heredity Chapter: Environmental effects on phenotype Reference: Environmental factors, Siamese cats, Presence of drugs, Temperature Learning objectives To understand the effect of environment on phenotype of organisms by examples Environmental factors Environmental factors such as diet, temperature, oxygen levels, humidity, light cycles, and the presence of mutagens can all impact which of an […]

Chromosomal Inheritance

AP Biology
Unit (5): Heredity Chapter: Chromosomal inheritance Reference: chromosomal theory of inheritance, law of independent assortment, genetic disorders, mendelian disorders, chromosomal disorders Learning objectives To study about chromosomal theory of inheritance To learn about genetic disorders Chromosomal theory of inheritance Proposed by Sutton and Boveri independently in 1902 and in 1933 T. H. Morgan confirmed these […]

Dna And Rna Structure

AP Biology
UNIT: Gene expression and regulation Chapter: DNA and RNA structure Reference: DNA, RNA, DNA structure, RNA structure, difference between DNA and RNA Learning objectives To learn the structure of DNA and RNA To differentiate between DNA and RNA DNA DNA was first founded by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. In February 1953, Watson and Crick completed […]

Replication

AP Biology
Unit: Gene expression and regulation Chapter: Replication Reference: Replication, The Machinery, and the Enzymes Process of replication, Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication  Learning objectives To understand the process of DNA replication To differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic replication Replication The process that facilitates the formation of newly formed DNA over the old strand of […]

Transcription And Rna Processing

AP Biology
Unit: Gene expression and regulation Chapter: Transcription and RNA processing Reference: Transcription, Regions of transcription unit, The Gene, Types Of RNA, The Process of Transcription, Complexity in Eukaryotic Transcription, Post transcriptional modifications in eukaryotes Learning objectives To understand about transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes To learn about post transcriptional modifications in eukaryotes Transcription DNA or […]

Regulation Of Gene Expression

AP Biology
 Unit : Heredity Chapter: Regulation of gene expression Reference: Regulation of gene expression, Genes are of two types Types of gene regulation, Lac operon, Tryptophan operon, Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP) Learning objectives To learn about lac operon, tryptophan operon To understand catabolite activator protein Regulation of gene expression All the mechanism that facilitates a gene […]

Gene Expression And Cell Specialization

AP Biology
Unit : Gene expression and Regulation Chapter: Gene expression and Cell specialization Reference: Prokaryotic gene expression, Eukaryotic gene expression, Cell differentiation, Role of DNA in cell differentiation Learning objectives To learn about prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression To understand cell differentiation Prokaryotic gene expression Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled organisms that lack a defined nucleus; therefore, […]

Mutations

AP Biology
Unit : Gene expression and regulation Chapter: Mutations Reference: Mutation, Types of Mutations, The Type of Cell Involved, Chromosomal Mutation and Types Learning objectives To understand the types of mutation Mutation Mutation is a process that produces a gene or chromosome that differs from the wild type. The mutation may result due to changes either […]

Biotechnology

AP Biology
Unit: Gene expression and regulation Chapter: Biotechnology Reference: Biotechnology, Principles of biotechnology, Restriction endonucleases enzymes, Separation, and isolation of DNA fragments Some important terms, Origin of replication, DNA ligases, Recognition sites Formation of a recombinant DNA, Various steps in the recombinant DNA formation, Recombinant DNA technology  Polymerase Chain Reaction, Downstream Processing DNA fingerprinting, Steps in […]

Natural Selection

AP Biology
Unit :  Natural selection Chapter: Introduction to natural selection Reference: Darwin theory of natural selection or Darwinism, Feature of Darwin’s theory of natural selection, Criticism of natural selection theory, Evidence in the favour of theory of natural selection, Effect of industrial melanism on peppered moth (Biston betularia), Pesticide (DDT) resistance in mosquitoes, Types of Natural […]

Artificial Selection

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Artificial selection Reference: Artificial selection, Artificial selection on wild mustard, Examples – Cow Breeding, Dog Breeding, Advantages of artificial selection, Disadvantages of artificial selection Learning objectives To understand about artificial selection and its advantages To learn examples of artificial selection Artificial selection Artificial selection is the intentional breeding of plants […]

Population Genetics

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Population genetics Reference: Population genetics, Gene frequency, Genotype frequency, Hardy-Weinberg principle, Factors leading to frequency change, Mutations, Recombination of genes, Genetic drift, Founder effect, Bottleneck effect, Gene migration (gene flow), Natural selection, Importance of population genetics  Learning objectives To understand the evolutionary factors responsible for showing variations in a population […]

Hardy-weinberg Equilibrium

AP Biology
Unit: Natural selection Chapter: Hardy Weinberg equilibrium Reference: Hardy-Weinberg principle, Importance Learning objectives To describe the conditions under which allele and genotype frequencies will change in populations. To explain the impacts on the population if any of the conditions of Hardy-Weinberg are not met. Hardy-Weinberg principle Coined by G. H. Hardy and W. Weinberg, which […]

Evidence Of Evolution

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Evidences of evolution Reference: Evolution, Basis of evolution, Forms of evolution, Evidences of evolution Learning objectives To describe the types of data that provide evidence for evolution. To explain how morphological, biochemical, and geological data provide evidence that organisms have changed for evolution Evolution Evolution is the change in the […]

Common Ancestry

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Common Ancestry Reference: Common ancestry, Homologous organs, Analogous organs, Fossils, Vestigial organs, Molecular Phylogeny, Homologous genes Learning objectives To understand the fundamental molecular and cellular features shared across all domains of life, which provide evidence of common ancestry Common ancestry Ancestral organism shared by two or more descendent lineages — […]

Continuing Evolution

AP Biology
Unit : Natural Selection Chapter: Continuing Evolution Reference: Continuing evolution, Contributions to genomic evolution, Continuous change in fossil record, Evolution in antibiotic resistance Learning objectives  To explain how evolution is an ongoing process in all living organisms. Continuing evolution Genomic changes over time indicate humans and other organisms are still evolving. Fossil records, evolution of […]

Phylogeny

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Phylogeny Reference: Phylogeny, Evidence for specific phylogenies Phylogenetic tree, Importance of a phylogenetic tree Types of phylogenetic tree, Animal Phylogeny, Phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatics Learning objectives To describe the types of evidence that can be used to infer an evolutionary relationship. To explain how a phylogenetic tree and/or cladogram can […]

Speciation

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Speciation Reference: Speciation, Speciation Causes, Natural selection Genetic drift, Migration, Natural causes, Types of speciation, Allopatric Speciation, Example of allopatric speciation, Sympatric Speciation, Examples of sympatric speciation   Learning objectives To describe the conditions under which new species may arise. To describe the rate of evolution and speciation under different […]

Extinction

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Extinction Reference: Extinction, Effect of extinction, Causes of Extinction, Asteroid Strikes, Climate Change, Disease, Loss of habitat, Lack of Genetic Diversity, Better Adapted Competition, Pollution, Relation between speciation and extinction, Relation between extinction and adaptive radiation Learning objectives To understand the cause and effect of extinction Extinction When a species […]

Variations In Populations

AP Biology
Unit : Natural selection Chapter: Variations in populations Reference: Variations, Cause of Genetic variation, Adaptations due to variations, Phenotypic variation, Cause of Phenotypic Variation, Genetic diversity, and its importance Learning objectives To understand the factors responsible for variations in population Variations Genotypic variations are caused by differences in number or structure of chromosomes or by […]

Origins Of Life On Earth

AP Biology
Unit: Natural selection Chapter: Origin of life on earth Reference: Origin of life, Theory of spontaneous creation (Theory of abiogenesis or Autogenesis), Evidences against the theory Redi’s experiment, Spallanzani experiment, Louis Pasteur experiment, Theory of panspermia or cosmozoic theory or spore theory, Theory of special creation, Theory of catastrophism, Theory of eternity, Modern theory or […]

Responses To The Environment

AP Biology
Unit:Ecology Chapter- Responses to the environment Reference: Ecology, Levels of ecological organisation, Environmental factor, Habitat, Niche, Major Abiotic factors, Types of organism-based tolerance, salinity, Growth, Transpiration, Germination, Pigmentation, Daily rhythms in animals Photoperiodism, Light zone in aquatic habitat, Soil, Responses to Abiotic Factors Learning objectives To understand the effect of major abiotic factors on ecosystem […]

Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

AP Biology
Unit: Ecology Chapter: Energy flow in ecosystem Reference : Energy flow in ecosystem ,productivity ,food chain, trophic    levels and ecological pyramids  Learning objectives To understand productivity, types of food chain To learn about ecological pyramids Energy flow in ecosystem Energy is the ability to do work. The main source of energy for an ecosystem is […]

Population Ecology And Effect Of Density

AP Biology
Unit : Ecology Chapter: Population ecology and effect of density on populations Reference: Population attributes, growth models, life history variations, Community interactions                                           Learning objectives To understand population attributes, growth models To learn life history variation […]

Community Ecology

AP Biology
Unit : Ecology Chapter: Community ecology Reference: Community ecology, Structure of a Community Species Richness, Species Diversity, Foundation Species Keystone Species, Community interactions, Climax community  Learning objectives To understand the structure of community To learn about community interactions Community ecology Community ecology is the science and theory that examines how populations of organisms interact and […]

Biodiversity

AP Biology
Unit: Ecology Chapter: Biodiversity Reference: Biodiversity, patterns of biodiversity, loss of biodiversity, cause of loss of biodiversity Learning objectives To understand pattern of biodiversity ,loss of biodiversity To identify the cause of biodiversity loss Biodiversity                                                 Biodiversity means diversity or heterogeneity at all levels of biological organization, i.e., from macromolecules of the cells to the Biomass. […]

Disruptions To Ecosystems

AP Biology
Unit: Ecology Chapter: Disruptions in ecosystem Reference: Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems Wildfires, Flooding, Volcanic Eruptions, Human Effects on Ecosystems, Habitat Destruction, Introduced Species, Overhunting Pollution and Environmental Change, Human Population Growth Global Climate Change, Geological and meteorological events that cause disruptions in ecosystems, El Nino, Continental drift, Meteor strikes Learning objectives To understand natural disruptions […]

Elements Of Life

AP Biology
Unit – Chemistry of life Chapter- Elements of life   Reference:  Elements of life, Carbon, Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus, Sulphur, Functional groups   Learning objectives  To understand the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms Elements of life 99% percent of the mass of the human body is made up of CHNOPS (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, […]

Introduction To Biological Macromolecules

AP Biology
Unit – Chemistry of life Chapter- Introduction to biological macromolecules Reference: Biomolecules, Biological macromolecule, Types of biomolecules, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids, Chemical bond, metallic bond, and covalent bond types, Chemical bond, Metallic bond, Covalent bond, Bond development of monomers, Dehydration synthesis, Hydrolysis, Monomers, and polymers   Learning objectives To understand the types of biological […]

Properties Of Biological Macromolecules

AP Biology
Unit – Chemistry of life Chapter- Properties of biological macromolecules Reference: Biomolecules, Carbohydrates, Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides, Lipids, General Physical Properties of Lipids, Phospholipids Steroids Proteins, Physical properties of proteins, Chemical properties of proteins, Nucleic acids   Learning objectives To understand physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Biomolecules Biomolecules have a […]

Structure And Function Of Biological Macromolecules

AP Biology
Unit : Chemistry of life Chapter: Structure and function of biological macromolecules Reference: Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Trisaccharide, Tetra saccharides, Polysaccharides, Functions of carbohydrates, Proteins, Structure of protein, Primary structure, Secondary structure, Tertiary structure, Quaternary structure, Functions of proteins, Lipids, Fatty acids, Conjugated lipids, Derived lipids, Functions of lipids, Nucleic acids, Functions of nucleic acids                                         […]

Nucleic Acids

AP Biology
Unit: Chemistry of life Chapter: Nucleic acids Reference: Nucleic acids, Role of nucleic acids, The difference between DNA and RNA, Nucleotides  Learning objectives To understand the structure of nucleic acids Able to differentiate between DNA and RNA To understand the detailed structure of DNA Nucleic acids Nucleic acid are polymers of nucleotides and are of […]

Cell Structure: Subcellular Components

AP Biology
Unit :  Cell structure and Function Chapter: cell structure: subcellular components Reference: Cell, Important discoveries, Types of cells, RER SER, Spherosomes, Golgi bodies, Function of Golgi bodies, Lysosomes-Vacuoles, Chloroplast, Mitochondria, Endosymbiotic theory, Ribosomes   Learning objectives To understand the structure of subcellular components Cell Basic unit of life structural unit of life Fundamental unit of […]

Cell Structure And Function, Size

AP Biology
Unit : Cell structure and function Chapter: cell structure and function Reference: Eukaryotic cell, Cell size, Importance of cell size, Plasma membrane, Sandwich model, Fluid mosaic model, Function, Aquaporins, Cell wall, Nucleus, Endo-membrane system, Endoplasmic reticulum, RER, SER, Spherosomes,  Golgi bodies, Function of Golgi bodies, Lysosomes-Vacuoles, Microbodies -Plastids, Chloroplast, Shape of chloroplast, Mitochondria, Endosymbiotic theory,  […]

Plasma Membranes And Permeability

AP Biology
Unit : Cell structure and function Chapter: Plasma membrane Reference: Plasma membrane, Structure, Components of Plasma Membrane, Models of structure of plasma membrane, Sandwich model, Unit membrane model, Fluid mosaic model, Functions   Learning objectives To study the structure of plasma membrane To understand different models of plasma membrane Plasma membrane The unit membrane which […]

Membrane Transport And Mechanism

AP Biology
Unit: Cell structure and function Chapter: Membrane transport Reference: Cell membrane, Passive Transport, Simple diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated diffusion, Active Transport, Primary (direct) active transport, Secondary (indirect) active transport, Bulk transport, Exocytosis, Endocytosis   Learning objectives To understand the transport of materials across the membrane Cell membrane Cellular membranes possess two key qualities: They are semi-permeable […]

Facilitated Diffusion, Tonicity And Osmoregulation

AP Biology
Unit: Cell structure and function Chapter: Facilitated diffusion Reference: Facilitated diffusion, Channel protein, Gated channel protein, Carrier protein, Ion Channels, Factors Affecting Facilitated Diffusion, Tonicity, Hypertonic Solution, An isotonic solution, A hypotonic solution, Effect on Animal Cells (Red Blood Cells), Effect on Plant Cells, Osmoregulation, Types of Osmoregulation, Osmo conformers, Osmo regulators, Importance of osmoregulation […]

Compartmentalisation And Origin

AP Biology
Unit: Cell structure and function Chapter: Compartmentalisation and its origin Reference: Compartmentalization, Prokaryotic and eukaryotic compartmentalisation, Compartmentalization in prokaryotic cell Compartmentalization of eukaryotic cell, Advantages of the compartmentalization of cells, Benefits of compartmentalization in prokaryotic cells, Origin of compartmentalization   Learning objectives To understand about compartmentalization of cell To identify the advantages and origin of […]

Enzyme Structure And Fitness

AP Biology
Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Enzyme structure Reference: ENZYMES, CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES, STRUCTURE OF ENZYMES, TERMS RELATED TO ENZYMES, NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES   Learning objectives To understand about the structure of enzyme To learn the characteristics of enzyme ENZYMES Enzymes are biocatalysts made up of proteins (except ribozyme) which increases the rate of biochemical […]

Enzyme Catalysis

AP Biology
Module: Cellular energetics Chapter: enzyme catalysis Reference : Mechanism of enzyme action, Mode of action of enzyme ,lock & key theory or template theory enzyme – substrate complex theory, induced fit theory, Competitive inhibition, Non -competitive inhibition                                     Learning objectives To understand the mechanism of enzyme action To learn about competitive and non-competitive inhibition […]

Environmental Impacts On Enzyme Function

AP Biology
Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Environmental impacts on enzyme function Reference: Temperature, Hydrogen -ion concentration, Concentration of the enzymes, Concentration of the substrate, Concentration of the end products, Hydration   Learning objectives To understand the effect of environment on enzymes The presence of enzymes not only accelerates or retards the chemical reactions but due to their […]

Cellular Energy

AP Biology
Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Cellular energy Reference: Cellular energy, Anabolic pathways, Catabolic pathways, Systems and Surroundings, Isolated System, Closed System, Open System, The First Law of Thermodynamics, Entropy and second law of thermodynamics, ATP Hydrolysis of ATP, ATP-Coupled Reaction Process, Exergonic reaction, Endergonic reaction                                              Learning objectives To understand about system and surroundings To […]

Photosynthesis

AP Biology
Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Photosynthesis Reference: Photosynthesis, Chloroplasts, Two predominant types of chlorophylls, Nature of light-Pigment systems, Light reaction, The Electron Transport System, Dark reaction   Learning objectives To understand about light and dark reaction To learn about the structure of chloroplast, light harvesting complex Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the only process on earth by which […]

Cellular Respiration

AP Biology
Unit: Cellular energetics Chapter: Cellular respiration Reference: cellular respiration, types of respiration, aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative aerobes, glycolysis, fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, aerobic respiration, tricarboxylic acid cycle, electron transport system (ets) and oxidative phosphorylation   Learning objectives To understand about respiration and its types To learn […]

Cell Communication

AP Biology
Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Cell communication Reference: Types of cell communication, The cell signalling pathway, Cell-cell contact   Learning objectives To understand about the process of cell communication and its pathway To learn about the types of chemicals signalling  Cell communication is also called as cell signalling. Cell to cell signalling refers […]

Signal Transduction

AP Biology
Unit: Cell communication and cell cycle Chapter: Signal transduction Reference: Components of signal transduction, Steps in the signal transduction pathway, Importance of signal transduction   Learning objectives To understand the steps involved in signal transduction pathway To learn about the importance of signal transduction Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical […]